surfaces of discontinuity, and what not. These can profitably be investigated in the free-balloon. A series of constant-elevation free-balloon flights in selected pressure distributions would unquestionably constitute a valuable contribution to meteorology.

The expense of operating a free-balloon, filling, transportation from landing point, etc., is large, it is true, but not larger than is justified by hte importance of the subject.

In this BULLETIN, Mr. Andrus, a meteorologist, tells of his experiences in the International Balloon Race. Mr. Upson, the pilot, used meteorology to give his balloon a high place among the contestants; and, in the National Race, through similar methods, he and Mr. Andrus were victorious. Cannot the meteorologist use the balloon to equal advantage?-C. LeRoy Meisinger.

The 1921 International Spherical Balloon Race

The 1921 International Spherical Balloon Race for the Gordon Bennett Cup was the most keenly contested and closely followed one in the history of the trophy. Besides the United States, Belgium, France, Great Britain, Italy and Switzerland had entries in the contest and when the take off occurred the afternoon of September 18th, there were fourteen gasbags almost bursting with enthusiasm and gas, each intent upon landing furthermost from Brussels.

The start was made in a 30-mile per hour easterly surface wind, and as the balloons faded from Brussels' sight in the setting sun many were the forebodings pronounced by spectators who pictured forced landings with life-buoys and cork-jackets upon the Atlantic. But like all easterly winds, this one proved quite undependable even in verifying these fears, for the one balloon which descended at sea struck water almost within sight of Dublin on the Irish Sea. Although less dramatically final, the meteorological outlook was far from favorable for the gaining of big advantages or big distances. All the foremost balloons were drowned by the drear persistence of calms from which they could find either no escape or an undesirable one which would reduce distance so strenuously gained.

The meteorological situation, as it appeared at the start, consisted of a strong anticyclone central over southern Sweden and dominating conditions in northwestern Europe; an ill-defined depression in the Bay of Biscay; and a vaguely reported but apparently deep cyclone near Iceland. Characteristic fine weather prevailed in the High and only scattered cloudiness had been generated by the Biscay Low. At Brussels a pilot balloon sounding showed that no well defined westerly current replaced the easterly beneath 4 kilometers in altitude.

The problem presented was to escape the influence of the Biscay depression which would have drawn balloons into dangerous positions over the Atlantic; and to gain a position controlled by the Icelandic Low or its offshoots where this control would draw the balloons northwestward across Ireland, northward over Scotland or northeastward to Scandinavia. The meteorological problems were so entangled with problems of land or sea topography that they were decidedly knotty. It appeared possible to avoid the Biscay Low by using strata in the free air whose component of south direction was pronounced. It also appeared that a drift to Ireland might be not difficult, and tactics to that end could be easily and temporarily

revised to embrace the course across Scotland or that to Scandinavia. In meteorological words, how directly does the cold dry air westbound from the anticyclone become the warm moist air of the front of a depression, if it actually has this life-history?

None of the balloons reached the control of the Iceland depression. Three fell into the clutches of the Biscay Low. The remaining eleven reached the limit of the strong east winds from the High or the limit of the west coastline of Wales, three of this number invading a neutral zone between the two Lows and two Highs, one the European High of the start and another a building anticyclone from the North Atlantic. The prevailing westerlies were never discovered. A well defined boundary separated the winds drawing to the Biscay Low from those beyond its control, and this boundary was found to be absolutely impassable to those on the side toward the Low. Surges, or waves of turbulence, were observed in both speed and direction over the first three kilometers of altitude while the balloons were nearest to the anticyclone over Sweden. Conditions approaching stagnation prevailed above 4 kilometer heights.

The three balloon pilots who were unable to avoid the Biscay Low circulation struggled through a perilous ride along the southern shores of England, being finally forced to descend along that coast. All of the balloons reported a fast crossing of the English channel, and three attempted a second crossing of a wide stretch of sea, in this case the Irish Sea. Amongst these was the winner, M. Armbruster, of Switzerland, who was able to touch land on the tiny island of Lambay, just off the east cost of Ireland; and another, that of Von Hoffman of the United States, which was forced to descend on the water from lack of ballast, but whose two occupants were rescued by a mail-packet, yet because of the rule that landing must be on land were not qualified for an award of a place in the contest.

The itinerary of Mr. Upson's balloon, in which I rode as aide, ran from Brussels, over Ghent, Ostende, English Channel, Margate, London, Oxford, Gloucester, Cardigan, and then described a parabolic curve out over the Irish Sea and turning northward and then northeastward back to the Lleyn Peninsula, North Wales. Perhaps of note, was the absence of vertical currents at the edge of the coastlines, due to absence of convection or temperature difference between land and water owing to overcast skies. A marked downward influence was felt directly over the city of London, about midnight the 18th. The calms which overtook most of the balloons reached ours while over the Irish Sea, and progress westward to Ireland was stopped. No progress in any direction was made for about four hours, when a faint breeze, just perceptible at times, finally brought us to land which proved to be the Lleyn Peninsula and also proved that further drifting in that direction meant but further loss of distance from Brussels, and as it appeared that we must be on the lower rather than the front side of the depression in the distant north, it was decided to land, although we still possessed a fair supply of ballast. After minute calculations, our distance was found to be three kilometers less than that of a British balloon which ran out to Fishguard Point, and thereby gained second place in the contest. The Race attracted much aerological attention. Two European countries had meteorological advisors in Brussels for the occasion, and the preparations for the start included a program for the distribution of advices and soundings of aerological conditions.-C. G. Andrus.

No Private Funds Designated For Meteorological Research

In the Bulletin of the National Research Council, March, 1921, on "Funds available in 1920 in the United States of America for the encouragement of scientific research," it is regretable to find that there are no funds designated for research in meteorology or climatology. Geology, the science of the solid earth, is represented by five medals and prizes, two grants, three institutional funds and eight fellowships and scholarships. Oceanography, the science of the liquid portion of the earth, is represented by one medal and one fellowship. But meteorology, the science of the atmosphere, has no private medal, prizes, or funds for fostering research.

We live on the ground or on the water, but in the air.

Is not there at least one person in the United States with sufficient interest and sufficient funds to establish even one grant or prize or scholarship in favor of research in meteorology or climatology?

WEATHER ELEMENTS IN RAILROADING

(Author's abstract of paper to appear in "Monthly Weather Review" for January, 1922)

In railroading the various weather elements play an important part; and since both roadbed and rolling stock are subjected to their influences, the weather problems of the railroader assume great magnitude. First of all, temperature extremes have a racking effect upon steel and iron work. Kails and carwheels, exposed to such severe meteorological conditions, often break and delays sometimes result. In an effort to overcome these difficulties, steel made by the open hearth process is being used by the railroads with excellent results.

Of the various forms of precipitation snow is regarded as the great enemy of rail transportation. To keep railroad rights of way free from snow, windbreaks of various sorts have been devised; snowplows-both of the rotary and ordinary push-plow types-have been pressed into service; and miles of snowsheds have been constructed. Such extensive preparations for the battle against snow necessitate the expenditure of millions of dollars annually. Snow slides also raise havoc with railroading and sometimes even hurl a train to destruction. Ice storms and thunder showers often put electrified lines out of commission and thus create problems for the electrical engineer to solve. Heavy rains bring about floods which wash away bridges, undermine roadbeds and cause landslides-all of which means a great financial loss to the railroads. Abundant rainfall also produces luxuriant vegetation which has to be cleared from the tracks-a factor that earth ballasted roads in both Tropical and Temperate Zones have to reckon with. Rain, too, is instrumental in bringing about the oxidation of the rails and the rotting away of ties and other woodwork. To combat this latter effect, large and expensive wood-treating plants have been erected in many railroads. In these plants, ties and other timbers are dipped in creosote or some such preservative with the idea of increasing their period of utility. Some railroads, especially those in the Tropics, have met this tie problem by the introduction of steel ties.

Wind is also an important factor in railroading for snow and sand impelled by strong winds drift onto the track and often delay transportation. Telegraph lines must be built of wire and poles strong enough to with

stand a gale when wires are enclosed in an ice casing 2 to 3 inches in diameter, and weighing 1 to 2 pounds per foot. The effects of wind velocities have to be considered by the structural engineer in the construction of steel bridges, also wind resistance must be calculated by yardmasters in making up their train tonnages on days when gales are blowing. Trains are often derailed by heavy winds; sometimes with disastrous results.

The weather affects not only the track and the rolling stock of the railroad but also the goods which it transports. This is especially true of the transportation of perishable goods in which temperature is the controlling factor. To regulate properly the temperatures of perishable goods in transit, precooling and icing stations have been built and refrigerator and heater cars devised. To the efficiency of these various agencies we owe the safe transportation of many of our staple food products.-Guy H. Burnham.

The upkeep and replacement of the snowsheds of the Southern Pacific Company on the Overland Route crossing the Sierra Nevada Mountains has proved to be so costly that the Chief Engineer of that company is at present making an intensive study of the storm problem. With the aid of powerful locomotives and improved rotary snowplows the plan is being considered of eliminating the snowsheds altogether. The snow problem is also related to that of electrification, which has been under consideration for several years. With an abundance of hydroelectric power available at small cost, while fuel supplies continue to diminish and the price to advance, the engineering department of the Southern Pacific Company hopes eventually to convert the deep snow into an asset by using hydroelectric power to keep the tracks clear of snow without the protection of snowsheds.— A. H. Palmer.

Sad Plight of Siberian Meteorologists

Two interesting letters depicting the unhappy conditions in Russia have recently come to hand; one from Professor V. Obolensky, who has lately been elected Director of the (Nicolas) Central Physical Observatory at Petrograd in Russia. Professor V. Obolensky states that "though surrounded with all kinds of obstacles, the Central Physical Observatory nevertheless is continuing its efforts and keeping up its work for the safeguarding and restoration of meteorology in Russia." This they are doing while struggling under the greatest difficulty to obtain the necessities of life.

The other letter was from Professor Alexis Nennsberg, who is the Manager of the Kamchatka Meteorological Bureau, with headquarters at Petropavlovsk, Kamchatka. Professor Nennsberg says, "You cannot imagine in what unfavorable conditions we are working; hungry, penniless and without hopes."

Professor Nennsberg states that he does not receive any salary from the Government (they are changing too frequently) and he obtains his livelihood on "the ludicrous sum collected by giving English lessons to the local Chinese inhabitants of Petropavlovsk."

Both letters contained appeals for help to rehabilitate their meteorological services and for the restoration of former exchange services, as regards weather reports and printed matter.

Under existing diplomatic relations between the United States and the Government of Russia the organization of exchange relati

to meteorological reports is obviously impracticable

regard

+he

personal sympathy of American meteorologists has been extended to the writers of the letters referred to in their struggle for the welfare of mankind under the disheartening conditions disclosed in their communications, and it seems certain that all must entertain the hope that in the near future the situation may become so settled that the customary exchange can be resumed and the great gap which now exists in the network of stations encircling the Northern Hemisphere may be closed.

Professor Alexis Nennsberg, the Manager of the Kamchatka Meteorological Bureau, with headquarters at Petropavlovsk, has seventeen meteorological stations in that country which he is trying to maintain under the greatest difficulties. The observers at many of them receive no pay for their services. Eight stations are connected by telegraph, while the others are practically without either telegraph or mail facilities.

He says several instruments are lacking, the registering apparatus have no papers and some of the screens are unpainted and have become rotten. These conditions exist with little hope of the head office in Vladivostock being able to receive from the Government any funds for the purchase of instruments and materials, to say nothing about a supply of meteorological literature sometimes more needed than anything else.

It is indeed a sad state of affairs when scientific men have such gigantic obstacles to overcome. We in this country can hardly realize the hardships our colleagues in Russia have to put up with and we can only hope that in the near future a more settled condition will prevail in that unhappy country, when it will be possible for us to extend to them a helping hand. -E. A. Beals.

Our Hungarian Colleague, Dr. Rethly

We have just received a pathetic letter from Dr. Anton Réthly, who has been connected with the Meteorological Institute of Hungary for many years, besides teaching in the University of Budapest, etc., and has been a voluminous contributor to the literature of meteorology and seismology.

He sends us five copies of a little booklet he has recently published in Hungarian on weather and climate, with a request that we purchase the same at a price of 50 cents a copy, which we are doing.

It appears that he has a family of a wife and four children whom he is trying to support on a salary equivalent to $2.50 a month American money. His wife and one of his children have recently undergone expensive surgical operations. He has received a small amount of assistance from the Hungarian-American Mission. He says that he recently sold his typewriter, and he and his family lived for two months on the proceeds. Altogether, it is one of the many sad stories that have come to us from AustriaHungary.

Dr. Réthly encloses a list of mathematical books which he offers for sale, and that he also says he has collections of postage stamps and coins for sale, and that he would be willing to accept old clothes in exchange for any of these things.

His address is: Dr. Anton Réthly, Margit-Körut 60 12/3, Budapest, Hungary.-C. F. Talman.

Shortly after the receipt of this letter 50 lbs. of clothing was collected and mailed to Dr. Réthly.-C. F. B.