guard shall be taken against disaster, financial as well as physical. The stabilization of commerce and industry is one of the first-fruits of insurance. The changeability of the weather is proverbial. Consequently, weather conditions are vital factors in the success of all outdoor trades, business ventures and sporting events. Adverse weather means increased costs, reduced receipts, and in some cases a total loss of the capital outlay. The stress of modern life makes holidays more or less a necessity. Most people lead indoor lives, and hence require an occasional outing. Outdoor events are arranged by promoters, and their success is dependent upon gate receipts, which are in turn largely determined by the state of the weather. The practice of extending the idea of weather insurance to indoor events is also being introduced, since the attendance at such gatherings is also influenced by the weather to some extent. One firm of insurance brokers (Henry W. Ives & Co., of New York) now issue "Pluvius Weather Policies," in which protection is guaranteed from losses due to unfavorable weather. For example, these policies insure the builder against loss in respect of external work occasioned by rain, wind or cold, and against penalties incurred by work thus delayed. They protect the farmer against crop damage occasioned by bad weather. They insure the caterer against reduced receipts resulting from inclement weather. They offer protection to the promoter of races, county fairs, baseball and football games and aviation meetings through abandonment or postponement of the event on account of bad weather. The managements of seaside and riverside hotels are insured against losses occasioned by a rainy spell, and guests are assured of rebates in the event of excessive or long-continued rains. To these may be added many other outdoor undertakings, such as exhibitions, pageants, fetes, moving pictures, concerts, flower shows, garden parties, athletic contests and the like. The largest single loss paid by this company last year was $10,000, which was paid to the management of a county fair at Bellefourche, South Dakota, where rain fell on July 5th in sufficient amount to cut down the attendance. This loss was paid within 30 days. During the first six months of 1921 more than $50,000 was paid by various weather insurance companies for losses sustained on baseball games alone. Lightning is a prolific cause of fire in large portions of the United States, and it thus enters as one of the factors considered in fire insurance. Lightning fires are now classed as partly preventable. While it can not be foretold when or where lightning will strike, properly installed lightning rods offer a reasonably safe preventive from such fires. The removal of inflammable material is also a factor in preventing such fires. In the forests of the Pacific states lightning is the most prolific natural cause of forest fires. Thunderstorms are of frequent occurrence in the mountains during the dry season. As they are usually accomgpanied by little or no rainfall, while lightning discharges are numerous, it sometimes happens that more than 100 forest fires are started by a single storm. Fire insur. ance of these forests is thus largely insurance against lightning. In the South and Middle West tornadoes occasionally occur. St. Louis, Omaha and Chicago all have experienced tornadoes within recent years. Fortunately, however, tornadoes have not done damage in proportion to their violence or their frequency. Because of the relatively sparse distribution of population, tornadoes have only occasionally wrought de struction. But it is not unreasonable to suppose that it will always be so. Many a tornado passed harmlessly over the prairies, whereas if any one of these had passed over a populous city the results would have been appalling. Tornado insurance is now carried extensively in rural districts and small towns in the South and Middle West. It is a form of financial safeguard which the prudent resident of a region subject to tornadoes can not well disregard. Hurricane insurance is of equal importance along the Gulf Coast. A farmer's business is conducted out of doors, and is in one sense a function of the weather. Its success is largely dependent upon favorable weather. The U. S. Bureau of Crop Statistics is authority for the statement that 80 per cent. of all damage sustained by growing crops is caused by unfavorable weather. The weather is a greater factor in successful agriculture than all other influences put together. For this reason the farmer has of necessity been more or less of a gambler, since the art of long-range weather forecasting has not yet been perfected. The farmer starts out confidently at seedtime betting his capital and his labor against unfavorable weather. That he has succeeded most of the time is due to the fact that he has conducted his operations where the weather has been propitious most of the time. He has succeeded with such crops as are adapted to the climatic environment. In so far as weather is concerned, the element of chance is rapidly being eliminated from American agriculture. As early as 1880 certain tobacco growers in Connecticut formed a mutual organization to write hail insurance. In 1919, the latest year for which complete statistics are thus far available, the hail risks in force in the United States totaled $559,000,000, for which premiums of $30,000,000 were paid. This business was done by 41 mutual companies, 43 joint-stock companies, and 4 state hail insurance departments. Compulsory state hail-insurance laws are in effect in the Dakotas, Montana, Nebraska and Oklahoma. The success of hail insurance as a business and its growth during recent years led to the formation of other weather and crop insurance. Drought is a frequent cause of crop failure. In 1917, three companies began writing drought insurance in the Dakotas and Montana, where spring wheat is the principal crop. Unfortunately, drought was experienced throughout this region during the following three years. The farmers are still attempting to collect their losses. Still another kind of crop insurance is that involving frost damage. In regions where horticulture is an important industry, frost is the element of unfavorable weather most feared. This is particularly true in the citrus fruit groves of Florida, where drought is unknown, and in similar groves in California, where artificial irrigation is practiced. While frost is harmful for citrus trees at any time, only the late spring frosts are injurious to deciduous fruit. During the blossoming and setting periods deciduous fruit is particularly susceptible to frost damage. In the citrus fruit groves of southern California and in the deciduous groves of central and northern California, smudging and orchard heating are extensively practiced, for killing frosts occur only occasionally during critical periods. As many orchards are not equipped with heating apparatus, and even with the use of such apparatus injury is not always prevented, there has developed a demand for frost insurance. Thus far this demand has only partially been 70 satisfied. Frost insurance is a virgin field which offers attractive inducements to capital seeking new pastures. The recent tendency in crop insurance has been toward a blanket If the farmer had to take out separate policies policy covering all risks. against hail, frost, drought, floods, dessiccating winds, field fires, insect pests, etc., he would have little margin for profit. In most cases a banker advances the insurance premium for the farmer, and, naturally, he it is While no such who insists upon a single policy to cover all possible risks. ideal blanket policy is yet available, progress has been made in the direction of its attainment. re In considering weather insurance in general, and crop insurance in particular, certain facts must be recognized. Companies doing business over a large territory and covering a great variety of risks are safeguarded from certain financial perils. Local companies doing business in a stricted district are in constant jeopardy. The loss involved in crop insurance is what is technically known in the insurance domain as a "conflagration loss." The loss is either very great or very small. The same idea is expressed by the weather proverb, "It never rains but it pours." Unlike fire risks, the hazard insured against in weather insurance originates entirely in natural forces over which man has no control. Legally, such damage is caused by "an act of God." The moral hazard and personal equation are largely eliminated from weather insurance. Careless farming is not thereby encouraged, however. Modern scientific agriculture requires that the farmer use his brains as well as his hands. Comfort, security and prosperity are assured only when scientific methods are employed. Crop insurance tends to reduce the element of risk. Statistics are now available in such variety and abundance that the farmer need not guess at the kind of crop best adapted to his climate and soil, or when it is safe to plant his crops in spring, or to harvest them in autumn. A higher premium is placed upon brains in farming than ever before. The average price of farm products has been rising for years. For this reason the inducement offered for improved methods of agriculture becomes more and more attractive with the passing of time. It is believed that the increased use of weather insurance will aid in guaranteeing perpetual prosperity to agriculture, and thus help to stabilize business in general.-A. H. Palmer. Notes on Weather Insurance. A striking instance of the value of weather insurance is apparent in connection with the football game played at San Diego, California, on De cember 26, 1921, between Center College and the University of Arizona. The game wos insured for $25,000 gate receipts. It was agreed that if precipitation exceeded 0.10 inch between certain specified hours of that day the insurance companies would pay the management the difference between $25,000 and the actual gate receipts. The companies involved were the Home Insurance Company and the Eagle Star and British Dominion Insurance Company, both of Great Britain. The premium paid by the promoters of the game was $1,500. It so happened that it rained practically all day on the day in question. The precipitation for the 24 hours measured 1.90 inches, and considerably more than 0.10 inch fell between the specified hours. The game was played in spite of the rain, but the gate receipts totaled only about $2,000. As there is no contest or ground for dispute the loss will probably have been paid before this note appears in print. The Pluvius rain department of the Eagle Star and British Dominion Insurance Company has recently made an extensive study of precipitation data for the United States covering the last 11 years. These data are to be used in determining future rates on rain insurance in various portions of the United States. Rain insurance is now being written by this company in Belgium, France and Holland. During 1922 it will be extended to South Africa, Germany and Austria. The preparation of rates for these countries is now under way. For its data in France the company has established 20 rainfall stations along the coast, from which it receives daily reports. The company's experience in rain insurance in England last year was bad, and represented a loss. It rained upon many of the big holidays, and particularly heavy claims were presented for losses sustained on Ascot Day. There is no feeling of discouragement, however, as insurance to be profitable must extend over a long period, so that the law of average can work itself out. The Globe and Rutgers Insurance Company of New York insured certain tobacco growers in Connecticut against damage to their 1921 tobacco crop caused by wind storm. A storm of this kind, according to their calculations, must be a gale blowing not less than 50 miles per hour. Certain damage to tobacco crops around Suffield last summer was alleged to have been caused by wind and hail. The insurance company claimed that the wind did not reach the stated velocity. It also claimed that the tobacco was overgrown and weak and as a result was damaged by what was characterized as a strong breeze. Following a hearing before the insurance commissioner of the state of Connecticut some of the claims were paid. The hearing concluded all possible action on the part of the tobacco growers unless they elect to take the matter to court. Diversity of crops is the best kind of weather insurance available to the average farmer. A feature which is destined to contribute to the success of crop insurance is a proposal advocated by various farm bureaus in New York State. The plan is to guarantee to any farmer taking out insurance on his crops a yield of at least 80 per cent of his normal average yield of those crops for the past three years. Any crop raised by the farmer may be protected by insurance. Protected by crop insurance, farmers would be able to obtain loans on their crops from the banks, and there would be a tendency on the part of the farmers to improve the quality of the seed used and the care given the growing crops. One of the requirements of the applicant for crop insurance would be a statement as to the quality of seed used and the extent to which consultation of farm bureau representatives and other experts were employed. Weather Insurance in Utah. A number of concessionaires at the Utah State Fair in 1921, not wishing to risk a loss of revenue from depleted attendance due to bad weather, insurance policies assuring for specified sums of money in case rain of a certain amount should fall between certain hours each day. The automobile races at the State Fair grounds in July, 1921 diminished gate receipts, due to strong wi Thanksgiving Day football game at the U sured for a sum of money equal to the a past years, in case snow, rain, wind or also insured against , or both. The in 1920 was insuch games in specified values should occur separately or in combination within specified hours. The cost of the premiums in each case was determined from the weather records at Salt Lake City, showing the frequency of occurrence of the kind of weather insured against, and thus the degree of risk that was being assumed.— Climat'l Data, Utah Sec., Sept. 1921, p. 1. CO-OPERATIVE OBSERVERS' DEPARTMENT For Voluntary Weather Observers in the Americas Foreword By Professor C. F. Marvin, Chief, U. S. Weather Bureau The Editor of the BULLETIN has brought to my attention the proposal to start a section of the BULLETIN to be devoted to the interests of the cooperative observers. This is a matter that pleases me very much, because from the point of view of the Weather Bureau the co-operative observer is one of the most important factors in our great organization. We now have a wonderful fund of climatological data, a portion of which is boiled down and concentrated in a publication known in the Weather Bureau as Bulletin "W" or as the section summaries of co-operative observers' reports. This is an inexhaustible mine of information for the students of meteorology and climatology, and it would never have been possible without the wonderful work, year after year, by the co-operative ob server. So much for what has been accomplished in the past. Never in the history of the human race has the question of the weather and the science of meteorology held such an important place in the daily affairs of mankind, both commercial, industrial and national, and a wonderful field is open to every student of meteorology to clear up the perplexities and obscurities of the important science of meteorology. I am certain that the section of the BULLETIN to be devoted to awakening and stimulating the interests of the co-operative observers and assisting them to pursue the observation and study of meteorological phenomena will be productive of very useful results in the long run. It seems important that this matter be understood in just the correct light. The Weather Bureau maintains two great groups of observing stations, namely, the primary stations, where every possible feature and characteristic of the weather and phenomena of meteorology is observed and investigated by the most highly trained observers that can be secured. The number of these stations at the present time is approximately 200, within the territory of the United States, and the state of the science at the present time does not require that this type of station be greatly increased in number. Auxiliary and supplementary to its primary stations, the Bureau maintains the co-operative stations, which now number over 4,000. Now the idea sometimes prevails that the Weather Bureau ought to furnish its co-operative observers with a full equipment of instruments. In reality, this is not either necessary or justifiable, and consequently the most enthusiastic of our co-operative observers sometimes feel disappointment on being refused what seems to them simple requests for instruments, and they do not in reality fully understand the reasons. I would like to have all recognize that the work of the Bureau really requires the two and different types of stations, and that while the duties and reports of the |